Glosses

abstract noun - This refers to a quality, state, concept or action (honesty, happiness, memory, speed). Abstract nouns can be both countable (worry, mistake), and uncountable (happiness, music).

In terms of meaning, it is useful to distinguish between abstract nouns, which typically refer to things you cannot touch, and concrete nouns, which refer to things you can touch (book, table). 

Related term: concrete noun, countable noun, noun, uncountable noun

active voice - In a clause in the active voice the Subject is also the Doer of the main action:

The woman hit the dog with a newspaper. [active voice clause]
 Subject/Doer

The Participant roles of Subject and Doer answer the question 'who/what did the action?':

Q: Who hit the dog with a newspaper?
A: The woman (hit the dog with a newspaper).

If we ask 'who/what was the action done to?', then the most likely answer will take the form of a clause in the passive voice:

Q: Who/what was hit with a newspaper?
A: The dog was hit with a newspaper by the woman. [passive voice clause]
       Subject                                                Doer

In this clause in the passive voice the Subject and Doer are no longer expressed by the same noun group; instead, the two grammatical Participants called Subject and Doer are expressed by different entities, respectively by the dog and the woman.

Note that the terms Doer and Subject are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: Doer, passive voice, Subject

adjective - This is a word which gives us more information about the thing we are referring to. Rather than simply referring to the bus or the vase, for example, we can add further information to the noun group which helps us to picture the bus more accurately:

the small bus
the small, red bus

a Chinese vase
an old Chinese vase

Adjectives can be divided into two groups: those that classify, and those that describe the thing we are referring to:

a Chinese vase  [classifying adjective]
an old vase        [describing adjective]

Note that describing adjectives are ‘gradable’, that is, they can be arranged on a scale:

quite small > reasonably small > very small > extremely small

By contrast, classifying adjectives cannot normally be preceded by adverbs such as very, extremely, rather and slightly:

a very Chinese vase

Related terms: noun group

adjective group - This is a group which consists of an adjective plus other words that add more information to the adjective. An adjective group helps to describe a person, animal, place or thing. It provides more information than an adjective on its own. 

He was too exhausted to go to bed.
                       adjective group

Related terms: adjective, noun group

Adjunct  - The Adjunct is a function in the clause which tells us about 'how?', 'why?', 'where?', 'when?' etc. The adjunct is typically expressed by a prepositional phrase, an adverb or an adverb group:

 Kitty   passed  with distinction.
Subject                           Adjunct 

 Bozo   has won   again.
Subject                       Adjunct

Note that the terms Adjunct and Subject are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: Subject

adverb - This is a word which typically provides more detail about an activity or event by answering the questions 'how?', 'when?' and 'where?':

The children searched everywhere. 
They searched frantically.
Afterwards they fell asleep.

An adverb can also do many other different jobs, for example:

	indicate the degree of certainty (possibly, probably, definitely)
	express a personal viewpoint (unfortunately, importantly, honestly)
	indicate the level of intensity (very, fairly, extremely)

link one sentence to another sentence in a text (however, therefore, finally)

Related terms: adverb group

adverb group - An adverb group is any group of words which has an adverb as the main word (or Head) of the group. The Head adverb may be modified by other words (Modifiers):

An adverb group can do the following jobs:

	indicate the degree of certainty (quite possibly, most definitely)
	express a personal viewpoint (rather unfortunately, quite honestly)
	indicate how, when, where, why (quite loudly, right now, just over there)

Note that the terms Head and Modifier are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: adverb

adverbial clause - An adverbial clause performs the role of telling how, when, where or why something was done or has happened:

how? - The burglar left the house as he had found it.
                                                   adverbial clause 
                                                      (= dependent or subordinate)

when? - Before it had even played its first match, the team was criticised.
                   adverbial clause (= dependent or subordinate)

where? - Wherever the President travels, his bodyguard travels with him.
                        adverbial clause (= dependent or subordinate)

An adverbial clause is always a subordinate clause in a sentence of at least two clauses, one of which is 'dominant' and the other is 'dependent' (on the dominant clause).

why? - She took an umbrella because it was raining.
                                                      adverbial clause (= dependent or subordinate)   

Sometimes these clauses are called 'primary' and 'secondary' but note that they can occur in any order: dominant followed by dependent, or dependent followed by dominant.

Related terms: adverbial, clause, dependent clause, subordinate clause

antonym - A word which is opposite in meaning to another word is called an antonym. Graded antonyms, such as big/small or wide/narrow, allow degrees of difference. Ungraded antonyms, such as married/single, have an "either/or" contrast between them.

Compare this with synonyms, which are words of similar meaning, such as tasty and delicious.

The use of antonyms can help the cohesion of a text.

Related terms: cohesion, synonym

article - This is a type of determiner which expresses the function of Pointer in the noun group. Like all determiners, articles are placed at the beginning of a noun group and point to the noun in the group. They answer the question: 'Which one?':

a school girl
the first day of spring

There are two types of articles. The indefinite article a/an points to any person, place or thing without specifying which particular one. The form a is used in front of words which begin with a consonant sound:

a school girl

The form an is used in front of words which begin with a vowel sound:

an occasion

The definite article the points to a specific person, place or thing.

the first day of spring

Note that the term Pointer is written with an initial capital letter because it is a functional term.

Related terms: determiner, noun group

aspect - This concept refers to how an action or event expressed through a verb is viewed from the perspective of 'completion': Is the action or event completed, or is it still in progress? Does its relevance continue to the moment of speaking, or is it a thing of the past?

There are two aspects in English: continuous and perfect. They combine with tense to form the present continuous (They are leaving tomorrow), present perfect (They have left already), past continuous (They were leaving when the phone rang), past perfect (They had left by then), and so on. Note that these are often referred to as 'tense' but in fact they are a combination of tense and aspect. For this reason, we simply refer to them by their name (present continuous, etc) without adding the word 'tense'.

We use finite auxiliary verbs (has, had, is, was) and participles (-ing form, -ed/en form) to make verb groups that combine both tense and aspect:

It's near closing time and we   are leaving   the shop now.
                                                        present continuous

It was near sunset and we were walking along the beach.
                                                   past continuous

Bozo has broken his leg and he now walks on crutches.
          present perfect

Bozo had broken his leg once before.
            past perfect

Aspect can also be expressed in a non-finite clause through the -ing form (having, being):

Walking along the beach, we saw the most beautiful sunset.
          non-finite clause

Having seen our room, we decided to change hotels.
          non-finite clause

Related terms: auxiliary verb, continuous, -ing form, non-finite clause, participle, past continuous, past perfect, perfect aspect, present continuous, present perfect, progressive aspect, tense

attitudinal lexis - This refers to verbs, adverbs, adjectives and nouns which allow us to express a personal attitude or opinion. For example, two people observing the same conversation might report it quite differently, depending on how they viewed the situation:

They quarrelled about who should be the leader. 
[negative opinion]

They discussed who should be the leader. 
[neutral or positive opinion]

Attitudinal lexis has an interpersonal function, expressing the writer's or speaker's viewpoint on the content of what they are saying. We can use attitudinal lexis for expressing a range of attitudes and feelings:

	to make a judgement about someone's behaviour or qualities (clever, foolish)
	to appreciate the value of things (success, disaster)
	to suggest particular emotions (smile, frown)

Related terms: interpersonal function 

auxiliary verb - This is a verb that comes in front of a main verb in a verb group:

Dotty  should     finish   her homework.
          auxiliary    main verb

In English, the auxiliaries are be, do, have and modal verbs (can, could, must, should, etc):

Dotty is finishing her homework.
Dotty had finished her homework.
Did Dotty finish her homework?

An auxiliary verb should be seen as a 'helping' verb. It can provide information about tense, aspect and voice, as well as emphasis:

Dotty did finish her homework.

Related terms: aspect, main verb, tense, voice

bare infinitive - The 'bare infinitive' of the verb form looks like the infinitive without to. It has no ending (-s, -ed, or -ing) and there is no change of vowel (sing not sang or sung). Alternative terms for the bare infinitive are 'base form' or 'dictionary form'.

Related term: base form, infinitive

base form - The base form of a verb looks like the infinitive without to. It is sometimes referred to as the 'dictionary form' or the 'bare infinitive'. The base form has no ending (-s, -ed, or -ing) and there is no change of vowel (sing not sang or sung).

Related term: infinitive

binder - A binder is a conjunction that joins two elements of unequal status. That is, there is a dominant ('free') element joined to a dependent ('bound') element:

These elements are said to be in a binding relation.

By contrast, a linker is a conjunction that joins two elements of equal status. That is, both the elements are free and can stand as a functioning whole:

Bozo or Kitty.
He laughed and he sang.

Related terms: binding relation, clause, clause complex, conjunction, subordinate conjunction, subordination 

binding relation - A binding relation is one where two elements of unequal status are joined together:

This is in contrast with a linking relation, where two elements of equal status are joined together:
 

Related terms: binder, clause, clause complex, conjunction, subordinate conjunction, subordination

cardinal number - A cardinal number is a 'quantity word' in the series one, two, three ... . Cardinal numbers typically express the Quantifier in a noun group, specifying how many there are of the Thing (persons, animals, things, events etc) in a noun group:

There was only room for        two         passengers.
                                       Quantifier              Thing
                                               cardinal number          noun

Cardinal numbers contrast with ordinal numbers or 'order words' in the series first, second, third ... 

Note that the terms Quantifier and Thing are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: ordinal number

Circumstance - This is a functional term for talking about 'what is going on' in a text. One of the functions of grammar is to represent our experience of the world:

	the actions and events taking place (Processes)
	the people and things participating in these actions and events (Participants)
	the Circumstances provide more information about the actions and events (how? when? where? why?)

Yesterday   Janice    was eating  her lunch  in the playground.
Circumstance   Participant      Process     Participant        Circumstance
    'when?'                                                                                  'where?'

Here the Circumstances tell us more about the action of eating: when it took place and where it took place.

Circumstances usually take the form of adverbs / adverb groups (yesterday) or prepositional phrases (in the playground).

Note that the terms Circumstance, Participant and Process are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: adverb, adverb group, Doer, Done-to, prepositional phrase, Receiver

class - We can label parts of a sentence according to the grammatical class they belong to: noun, verb group, clause, and so on. These class (or form) labels are like the 'parts of speech' of traditional grammar:

We can also label parts of a sentence in terms of the functions that they perform (eg Subject, Participant, Modifier). We use capital letters to signal functional terms.

Related terms: function, functional grammar

Classifier - This is a word which is used in a noun group to show that the main noun, or Thing, in the noun group belongs to a particular sub-class or category. A Classifier answers the question 'What type?'. A Classifier is placed immediately in front of the noun:

the only flying mammals
large fruit bats
the tropical forests of South America

Classifiers cannot be graded, compared or intensified:

very fruit bats

Note that the term Classifier is written with an initial capital letter because it is a functional term.

Related terms: Describer, noun group

classifying reference - A classifying reference classifies people, animals, things or events in terms of their membership of a class of things.

This is often done with the determiner a or no determiner at all with a plural noun:

Miss Lee is a teacher.
Cats are mammals.

Related terms: general reference, reference

clause - The clause is a unit of grammar that is made up of groups or phrases:

Granny Gong     was walking     down the road.
   noun group             verb group      prepositional phrase

The clause is the largest and most important unit in grammar and constitutes a complete message. It is where we:

	represent our experience of the world
	manage our interactions with others
	organise our message to relate it to its context

A clause may be finite (with a finite verb) or non-finite (with a non-finite verb, or very occasionally no verb at all):

When dreaming about his holidays,  //  Ricky forgot about school altogether.
         non-finite clause [non-finite verb]                           finite clause [finite verb]

With no one in charge in the classroom,  //  the children went wild.
            non-finite clause [without verb]                    finite clause [finite verb]

Two or more clauses can combine to form a unit of grammar called 'clause complex'. Traditional grammars use the term 'sentence', which is either made up of a single (independent) clause or of several clauses, one of which must be independent.

Related terms: clause complex, finite clause, finite verb, group, non-finite clause, non-finite verb, phrase, sentence

clause combining - Clause combining is the linking or binding of clauses into clause complexes (compound or complex sentences in traditional grammar). Linking relations are sometimes referred to as 'coordination' and binding relations are sometimes referred to as 'subordination'.

	linking: two independent clauses are combined in a sentence
		Bozo was eating his dinner, // and forgot all about his troubles at school.          clause 1: independent                              clause 2: independent
	binding: an independent and a dependent clause are combined in a sentence
		While eating his dinner, // Bozo forgot all about his troubles at school.        clause 1: dependent                              clause 2: independent

Related terms: binding relation, clause, clause complex, combining relation, coordination, linking relation

clause complex - A clause complex is a combination of two or more clauses, and is usually called 'sentence' in traditional grammars:

Granny Gong liked tea   //  and Grandpa Gong liked coffee. 
       independent clause                         independent clause
                       [compound sentence]

Miss Lee was angry   //   because her students were late. 
       independent clause                   dependent clause
                               [complex sentence]

Independent clauses are connected by 'linkers' (coordinating conjunctions) (and, but, or) in a linking relation. Independent clauses are connected with dependent clauses by 'binders' (subordinating conjunctions) (because, when, although) in a binding relation.

A clause complex can be a combination of different types of clauses:

	one (or more) independent (or main) clauses (compound sentence)
	an independent clause and a dependent clause (complex sentence)
	a mixture of such combinations

Because Bobby was mad at Ricky   //
       dependent clause

he refused to play with him   //  and went home instead.
      independent clause                           independent clause

Because Bobby was angry   //  when he left school   //
       dependent clause                           dependent clause

he refused to play with Ricky   //  and went home.
      independent clause                         independent clause

Related terms: binder, binding relation, connective, complex sentence, compound sentence, coordinating conjunction, dependent clause, independent clause, linker, linking relation, main clause, sentence, subordinating conjunction

cohesion - Cohesion refers to the ways in which connections are made between sentences to make a text hang together. The ways of achieving cohesion are either grammatical or lexical in nature:

Grammatical cohesion

	referring to participants in a text: reference
	leaving words out: ellipsis
	replacing words: substitution
	expressing addition
	expressing alternatives
	expressing contrast
Lexical cohesion
	using the same word: repetition (often with a change to the definite article)
	using a word with a similar meaning
	using a general word
	using a word from the same area

Related terms: ellipsis, reference, substitution

collective noun - Collective nouns are words that refer to groups of people such as staff, team, family, (and occasionally animals, eg herd, flock, swarm, pack).

The verb after a collective noun is typically in the singular, but may be in the plural, especially in British English:

The Gong family was a very happy one. 
The Gong family were forced to leave China in 1949.  

The reason why the verb can be used both in the singular or the plural is that the group which is represented by a collective noun can be seen either as a single unit, or as a group of individuals. For teaching purposes, it is better to tell students to use a singular verb after collective nouns.

Related term: countable noun, noun , uncountable noun

collocation - This refers to the ways in which words can or cannot be used together in speech and writing. For example, some adjectives with similar meanings can describe some nouns but not others: we can say strong tea, powerful engine but not powerful tea, strong engine. The same restrictions apply to many verb-noun combinations: we can say do a dance, make a mistake but not make a dance, do a mistake.

Related terms: cohesion 

combining relation - This term refers to the various ways in which elements can be combined, eg a linking relation between two elements of equal status (Bozo was eating dinner and Kitty was watching television.) or a binding relation between two elements of unequal status (Bozo was eating dinner while Kitty was watching television.).

 Linking relations are not reversible, while the elements in a binding relation can be reversed:

 Linking relation (equal status):  

She wanted to go, but it was too late.
But it was too late, she wanted to go.

Binding relation (unequal status):

She decided to go, although it was very late.
Although it was very late, she decided to go.

When clauses are combined they form a clause complex (or sentence).

Related terms: binding relation, clause, clause combining, clause complex, coordination, linking relation, meaning relation, reversibility, sentence, subordination 

Command - This is one of the four major speech functions; the others are Offer, Question and Statement.

When you tell (or order) someone to do something, you are making a Command:

Put it over there, please!
Finish your dinner!
Please don't cry!
Be quiet!

In making a Command you are demanding or requesting that someone does something, which can be for you or for someone else. (It can even be for the person you are commanding, eg Wash your hands before eating!) 

Commands are like Questions in that the speaker is asking something of the listener. With a Question the speaker asks for information, whereas with a Command the speaker either asks for something or for some behaviour. We can call the thing 'goods', and refer to the behaviour as 'service' (Give me the book!, Put it over there!, Can you open the window?).

The most typical way of making a Command is with an imperative clause, as in the above examples.

Note that the terms Offer, Question, Statement are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: imperative, Offer, Question, speech function, Statement

common noun - This is a category of nouns which refer to living or non-living entities and which are distinct from proper nouns (Bozo, Grandpa).

Common nouns can be sorted into a number of different categories in terms of grammar (countable and uncountable) and in terms of meaning (concrete, abstract and collective). 

	countable nouns may refer to both living entities (teacher) and non-living entities (book). Note that countable nouns are either singular or plural (teacher/teachers, book/books).
	uncountable nouns refer to non-living entities, substances or abstract concepts (water, furniture, work, beauty).

	concrete nouns refer to things which you can touch (book, table).
	abstract nouns (happiness, memory) refer to things which you cannot touch.
	collective nouns refer to a collection of people, animals or things which we conventionally see as a group (family, staff, government).

Note that common nouns (unlike proper nouns) are typically used with a determiner, ie we say an apple or these apples.

Related terms: abstract noun, collective noun, concrete noun, countable noun, determiner, proper noun, uncountable noun

comparative - We compare things by using comparative adjectives, and we compare actions and events by using comparative adverbs.

There are two ways of forming comparative adjectives, depending on the origin of the adjective:

by adding '-er' to the usual form of the adjective, sometimes with a slight change in spelling (big - bigger)

     Does your family need a bigger apartment?

Adjectives formed in this way are usually short (one or two syllables).

by placing more before the adjective (beautiful - more beautiful)

     My cat is more beautiful than yours.

Adjectives formed in this way are usually long (more than two syllables).

We form comparative adverbs by placing more before the adverb (quickly - more quickly):

     Granny Gong sleeps more peacefully than Grandpa Gong.

Related term: superlative

Complement - The term 'complement' is used in slightly different ways in different grammatical approaches. Here we are using it as a functional term (and therefore write it with a capital letter: Complement) to refer to any element of a clause that isn't the Subject but which could become the Subject:

  Kitty   gave   Ricky      that book    for his birthday.
Subject            Complement    Complement

In the above clause, both Ricky and that book could play the role of Subject:

Ricky was given that book by Kitty for his birthday.
That book was given to Ricky by Kitty for his birthday.

Note that the terms Circumstance, Complement, Participant, Process and Subject are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: clause, Circumstance, Participant, Process, Subject

complex sentence - In traditional grammar, a complex sentence consists of an independent (or principal) clause and a dependent (or subordinate) clause:

  Ricky went home    //   because he was tired.
        independent                           dependent

  When he got home   //      he went to bed.
        dependent                            independent

By contrast, a simple sentence consists of a single clause (Ricky went home.) and a compound sentence consists of two independent clauses (Ricky went home and Kitty kept shopping.)

Related terms: binding relation, clause, compound sentence, sentence, simple sentence, subordination

complexity - Spoken language and written language are complex in different ways. The complexity of spoken language lies in the intricate way in which clauses are typically strung together to form long sequences:

She wanted to come with us
but I said she couldn't
because last time she complained all the time
and that was really annoying
so this time she can go by herself
and see how she likes that.

The complexity of written language, on the other hand, lies in the way meanings are tightly compacted:

Her constant, annoying complaining resulted in her isolation.

Related terms: clause, clause complex, grammatical intricacy, lexical density

compound sentence - In traditional grammar, a compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses that are 'linked' together in a coordinating relationship:

Bozo was watching TV and Kitty was playing Nintendo.
   clause 1: independent                    clause 2: independent

The most common conjunctions used to join clauses in a compound sentence are and, but, or.

Related terms: linking relation, clause, complex sentence, sentence, simple sentence, coordination

conjunction - This is a word used to join one clause to another:

Bozo throws a stick //    and     Barney runs to get it.
                                conjunction
          clause 1                                    clause 2

  When   Bozo throws his stick, // Barney runs to fetch it.
conjunction
                     clause 1                                          clause 2

Related terms: coordinating conjunction, subordinating conjunction

concrete noun - This refers to a physical thing (book, jam). Concrete nouns can be both countable (book, table), and uncountable (water, jam).

In terms of meaning, it is useful to distinguish between concrete nouns, which typically refer to things you can touch, and abstract nouns, which refer to things you cannot touch (happiness, memory). 

Related term: abstract noun, countable noun, noun, uncountable noun

connective - Connective is the general term for those forms which function to connect one clause to another:

	conjunction (and, but, if, because), eg Dotty was a little silly but she had a good heart.
	preposition (in, on, by means of, through), eg Inspector Fu solved the case by means of some brilliant detective work.

Connectives are distinguished according to whether the clauses they connect are of equal status (independent or main clauses) when they are coordinating conjunctions, or of unequal status (independent clause to dependent clause) when they are subordinating conjunctions:

	coordinating conjunctions or binders, eg Bozo did his homework and Kitty went to the movies.
	subordinating conjunctions or linkers, eg Kitty went to the movies although she had homework to do.

Related terms: binder, coordinating conjunction, conjunction, linker, subordinating conjunction

countable noun - We say that a noun is countable when it can be identified as an individual item (tree, cat, computer). Countable nouns have both a singular form and a plural form, and can be counted (a tree, two trees). Countable nouns contrast with uncountable nouns.

Related term: uncountable noun

continuing clause - When we look at a pair of clauses in terms of sequence, we say that the first clause is the initiating clause of the sequence and the following clause (or clauses) are the continuing clauses:

  Ricky was tired      //     so he went home.
    initiating clause                       continuing clause

  Ricky went home     //      and went to bed.
     initiating clause                        continuing clause

This simply indicates which clause comes first and which comes second. It doesn't tell us anything about the meaning relationship between the clauses. We use the terms 'initiating' and 'continuing' when the clauses are of equal status.

Related terms: clause combining, clause complex, initiating clause, linking relation

continuous - The continuous aspect (also called 'progressive') is formed with the past, present or future form of the auxiliary verb be and the -ing form of the main verb. The continuous is typically used to refer to actions or events that were in progress at some point in the past, are in progress in the present, or will be in progress at some point in the future: 

Bozo was watching television, when suddenly the phone rang.
Kitty is doing her homework at the moment.
Miss Lee will be teaching her English class tomorrow. 

Related terms: aspect, auxiliary verb, -ing form, progressive aspect

declarative - A declarative is a clause where the Subject precedes the verb:

Dogs     need a lot of care.
Subject     verb

We typically use declarative clauses to make Statements, ie to give information to the listener. The information can be simple factual information as well as information that expresses our opinion about things.

Kitty did her homework last night.
I think you're stupid!

Note that the terms Statement and Subject are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: Statement, Subject

defining - This is a special way of describing which gives a technical term a precise meaning. Defining a technical term identifies and specifies exactly what it refers to. We use Classifiers and Qualifiers to define technical terms.

In English, technical terms are linked to their definitions by relating clauses. The work of defining the term is done by a noun group. In a defining noun group there are enough Classifiers and Qualifiers to ensure that a term is exactly and precisely described.

Vertebrates are animals which have back bones.
                               n o u n   g r o u p 
                                                              Qualifier

Here the noun group has a Qualifier which specifies which animals, of all the animals in the world, are vertebrates.

Dalmations are  black and white   short-haired   dogs.
                                Classifier                 Classifier

Here the noun group has a series of Classifiers which specify which dogs, of all the dogs in the world, are dalmations.

Defining is important in the study of all scientific and technological subjects.

Note that the terms Classifier and Qualifier are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: noun group, relating clause

defining relative clause - A defining relative clause (also called 'restrictive' relative clause) gives information which defines or specifies the persons, animals, things etc named in a noun group: 

The Gong family moved into the apartment which was built only one year ago. 

The relative clause which was built only one year ago specifies which apartment the Gong family moved into. The relative clause is usually linked to the first clause by a relative pronoun such as who, which, whose, that but the pronoun may also be omitted, especially in informal or spoken language:

The children sleeping in Miss Lee's class all failed their exams.

A defining relative clause usually follows the main clause without any punctuation, whether it begins with a relative pronoun or not. 

Related terms: non-defining relative clause

definite article - The definite article belongs to the class of specific determiner. Like specific determiners, it is a word used at the beginning of a noun group to specify the Thing (or Head) in the noun group but it does so in an unusual way:

Miss Lee liked the present a lot.

Here the present is clearly a specific present but we don't know which one.

The definite article the is a special case since other information, usually in the noun group (Classifier, Describer, Qualifier, etc), is needed to fully specify which Thing is meant. For example, compare these sentences:

We'll take the bus.
We'll take the green mini bus waiting at the stop.
We'll take this bus.

The first example does not tell us which bus is meant; the second example tells us which bus by specifying its colour, type and location; and the third example tells us which bus by specifying its distance (near rather than not-near) to the speaker.

Demonstratives specify by distance to the speaker: near (this, that), far (these, those); their forms vary according to number: singular (this, that), plural (these, those). 

Related terms: determiner, indefinite article, specific determiner

definite reference - When we use the definite article the to refer to something somewhere else in a text, we are using 'definite reference':

MegaMonster stretched out another long tentacle until it reached into a swimming pool in Wan Chai. He drank up all the water from the swimming pool.

Here the storyteller first introduces a new participant (a swimming pool) into the text with the indefinite article a, and then refers back to it as the swimming pool. By referring or pointing back to the new participant in this way, we create cohesion in the text: a swimming pool - the swimming pool. 

We use definite reference with the for several different tasks:

Note that the terms Quantifier and Thing are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: classifying reference, general reference, indefinite reference

demonstrative determiner - There are four demonstrative determiners in English: this, that, these, those. We use demonstrative determiners to state the 'distance' between the speaker and the thing being referred to: 

	What is this book doing on the floor? [near me]
	That mountain in the distance is called 'Mount Fuji'. [not near me]
	These apples are delicious. [near me]
	Who are those people over there? [not near me]

Note the difference between demonstrative determiners and demonstrative pronouns.

Related terms: determiner, pronoun, specific determiner 

demonstrative pronoun - There are four demonstrative pronouns in English: this, that, these, those:

	What is this?
	That is a good idea.
	These are delicious.
	Give me those.

Note that this and that typically refer to things rather than to people. They can also refer to concepts which are expressed either by singular countable nouns or by uncountable nouns, whereas these and those can only refer to concepts expressed by plural countable nouns. Note also the difference between this, that as demonstrative pronouns and this, that as demonstrative determiners.

Related terms: demonstrative determiner, pronoun

dependent clause - This is another term for a subordinate clause. A subordinate clause is dependent on a dominant clause (often a main clause) and cannot normally stand alone:

Mr Wing was tired // after he had been driving all day.
    main clause                     subordinate or dependent clause

There is a binding relation between a main or dominant clause and a subordinate / dependent clause. Non-finite clauses are always dependent.

Related terms: binding relation, clause, dominant clause, independent clause, main clause, non-finite clause

Described - The term 'Described' is used for a Participant in a relating clause, specifically a 'describing' clause: 

Grandpa Gong  was   old. 
     Described                  Description

The Participant 'Described' is typically expressed by a noun or a noun group. 

Note that the terms Described and Description are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related term: Description, naming / describing / owning clause, relating clause 

Describer - We can use the term Describer to refer to those words that perform the function of providing descriptive information about a person, place, animal or thing. We find Describers in noun groups:

	Describer	Describer	Describer
a	nasty	big	growling	dog

Describers can give an opinion (eg 'nasty') or can be factual ('big').

Describers are usually expressed by adjectives (nasty, big) but can also be expressed by other grammatical classes such as verbs (growling).

You will also find the term Epithet used for this function. 

Note that the terms Describer and Epithet are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: noun group, adjective

Description - The term 'Description' is used for a Participant in a relating clause, specifically a 'describing' clause: 

Grandpa Gong  was   old. 
     Described                Description

The Participant 'Description' is typically expressed by an adjective. 

Note that the terms Described and Description are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related term: Described, naming / describing / owning clause, relating clause 

determiner - A determiner functions as Pointer in the noun group to further 'specify' the Thing. It always occurs at the beginning of a noun group, unless there is a predeterminer:

My friend liked the boy with green hair.

There are two main types of determiners: specific and non-specific, each with their own subclasses.

Specific determiners include:

demonstratives: this, these, that, those, the

possessives: my, your, our, his, her, its, their, one's, [John's]

Both types of specific determiners also have interrogative forms: which(ever), what(ever), whose

Non-specific determiners include:

each, every, both, all, neither, no, one, either, some, any, a(n)

Note that the terms Pointer and Thing are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: definite article, demonstrative determiner, indefinite article, interrogative determiner, non-specific determiner, noun group, possessive determiner, specific determiner

direct object - The direct object of a verb is the noun, pronoun or noun group which is directly affected by the action of the verb:

I knocked, rang the bell, knocked again. 

Related terms: indirect object, noun group, object

direct speech - Direct speech is the structure in which we quote directly the words that someone says or thinks. In direct speech, the quoting clause and the quoted clause can be in either order:

Granny said, "I don't believe you." [direct speech]
quoting clause           quoted clause

"I don't believe you," Granny said.  [direct speech]
         quoted clause              quoting clause         

This contrasts with indirect speech, sometimes called reported speech, where the exact words are not used and the reporting clause usually comes before the reported clause:

Granny said (that) she didn't believe him. [indirect speech]
     reporting clause              reported clause

Related terms: free indirect speech, indirect speech, reported clause, reported speech, reporting, reporting clause, quoted clause, quoting, quoting clause

ditransitive verb - A ditransitive verb is a transitive verb which can take two objects (the indirect object without the preposition to, followed by the direct object):

Miss Lee gave her mother a new radio.

Note that not all transitive verbs can be used with two objects. Ditransitive verbs are typically one-syllable words (eg send, give, make, pass, get, write) while their longer equivalents (eg transfer, donate, manufacture, circulate, obtain, compose) are generally restricted to the direct object followed by the indirect object with to:

Grandpa has donated money to the school.

Related terms: direct object, indirect object, intransitive verb, transitive verb

Doer - The Doer is a Participant in a 'doing' clause:

The student carried a heavy bag.  
       Doer                           Done-to 

Ricky  kicked  the ball  through the window.  
  Doer                    Done-to          Circumstance

The Doer is typically expressed by a noun or noun group. 

Note that the terms Doer Done-to, Participant and Circumstance are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: Doing verbs, Done-to, Participant

doing clause - A 'doing' clause answers the question Who did what, to whom (or what), under what circumstances? 

Ricky   kicked the ball   through the window. 
 who?           did what?            what Circumstances?

'Doing' clauses are a constant feature of our everyday life. We need them to describe and explain what people did or are doing, and we encounter them when reading stories and news articles, which are typically about 'what happened'. 

Note that the terms Circumstance, Doer, Done-to are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: Circumstance, Doer, doing verb, Done-to, existential clause, naming / describing / owning clause, saying clause, thinking / feeling / perceiving clause 

doing verbs - These are verbs which typically express actions and events that take place in the physical world:

SleepStealer swam along the bottom of the harbour and climbed up onto the land. He crawled through the streets and lanes.

Doing verbs can also express more abstract ideas:

The temperature dropped when the sun went down.

Doing verbs can be compared with thinking, feeling perceiving verbs, relating verbs and saying verbs.

Related terms: clause, verb, verb group

dominant clause - When two clauses are combined in an unequal relationship we can refer to the independent clause as 'dominant' (or 'principal' or 'main'):

  Granny was tired      //     because she had walked a long way.
    dominant clause                       subordinate clause

Note that the dominant clause is sometimes referred to as the 'independent', 'main' or 'principal' clause, and the subordinate clause is sometimes referred to as the 'dependent' clause.

Related terms: binding relation, clause, clause complex, dependent clause, independent clause, sentence, subordinate clause

Done-to - The Done-to is a Participant in a 'doing' clause:

Ricky  kicked  the ball  through the window.  
  Doer                    Done-to          Circumstance

The student carried a heavy bag.  
       Doer                           Done-to 

The Done-to is typically expressed by a noun or noun group. 

Note that the terms Circumstance, Doer, Done-to, and Participant are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: Circumstance, Doer, Doing verbs, Participant

dual - refers to words which have the meaning of 'two'. This is in addition to singular and plural in the English number system. 

The dual is expressed through a few nouns, pronouns, and determiners which mean 'two': pair, couple, both, either, neither. Some dual words have both a singular and plural form (pair/pairs, couple/couples) and some have only a singular form. In terms of agreement, some dual words can be either singular or plural: My new pair of shoes is still unpacked (singular). There is some variation (and often confusion) in the choice of singular or plural. 

Note that with either and neither, the verb should be in the singular. Neither of them has a chance. However you will sometimes see people using the plural form of the verb: Neither of them have a chance.

Related terms: number, plural, singular

-ed / en clause - Some clauses do not contain a finite verb. Some contain a non-finite verb, such as a past participle:

Frightened by the noise, Granny ran into the kitchen.
      non-finite clause

Because many past participles end in -ed or -en, these clauses are sometimes referred to as -ed / en clauses:

Awoken by the noise, she crept out of bed.
Granny, tired from her adventure, went back to bed.

Past participles don't always end in -ed or -en, but we can still refer to the clause as an '-ed / en clause':

Stung by a bee, he raced into the house.

The -ed / en clause is always dependent (it cannot stand on its own).

Related terms: binding relation, clause, clause complex, dependent clause, independent clause, non-finite clause, participle, sentence, subordination, non-finite verb 

-ed /-en form - The -ed /-en form refers to the form of the verb that ends in -ed or -en. Traditionally this is called the past participle. Some examples are: asked, walked, taken, eaten. Note that some forms are irregular, for example, the -en forms of buy and run are bought and run.

Related term: -ing form

elaborating - When we combine two elements, we sometimes need to describe the meaning relationship between them. We use the term 'elaborating' to refer to those elements that follow the pattern 'X = Y':

We elaborate on an element by restating it in other words (Beijing, ie the capital of China), specifying in greater detail (Beijing, an enormous city with a large population ...) or exemplifying (Large cities, for example Beijing ...). 

Related terms: clause, clause complex, enhancing, expanding, extending

ellipsis - This refers to the option of leaving out some wording in dialogue because it can be understood in the context:

The answer does not have to repeat information already supplied in the Question. We can either leave out the whole of the clause that is known from the Question and simply say Yes [I am hungry], or only part of it and say Yes, I am [hungry]. Ellipsis is very common in reply to a yes/no interrogative or a wh- interrogative.

Ellipsis is also possible in the imperative or even the declarative:

The answers in response to both Command and Statement show again our choice between full or partial ellipsis of the clause.

Note that the terms Answer, Command, Question and Statement are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: cohesion, clause, declarative, imperative, wh- interrogative, yes/no interrogative

embedded clause - Embedded clauses are dependent clauses that post-modify noun groups, adjective groups or adverb groups, or even function the way a noun group would in a clause structure:

Ricky won his race   more easily      than he had expected. 
                                         a  d  v  e  r  b    g  r  o  u  p        
                                   comparative adverb    embedded clause [= Post-Modifier]

Note that the terms Post-Modifier and Subject are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: adjective group, adverb group, clause, noun, noun group, Post-Modifier

enhancing - When we combine two clauses, we sometimes need to describe the meaning relationship between them. We use the term 'enhancing' when one clause enhances the meaning of another clause by qualifying it in terms of time, place, cause or condition:

When I looked again, she had disappeared. [time] 
She wanted to return to Greece, where she had spent so many happy years. [place]
We didn't eat anything because we weren't hungry. [cause]
If you don't hurry, you'll be late. [condition] 

Related terms: clause, clause complex, elaborating, expanding, extending

equal status relation - When we combine two clauses, they can be of equal or unequal status. When they are of equal status, both elements are said to be independent (or 'free'). They are joined by linking conjunctions such as and, or, but and so:

It is not only clauses that can have equal status relations:

Related terms: linker, clause, clause complex, conjunction, coordinate conjunction, coordination, equal status relation

ergative - An ergative verb is a verb for which the same noun can be the object of its transitive use or the subject of its intransitive use. In the transitive use, the person/thing that performs the action is the subject:

Mr Wing stopped the bus.

In the intransitive use, the person/thing that performs the action is not mentioned:

The bus stopped suddenly.

Related terms: intransitive verb, object, subject, transitive verb

Exclamation - This is one of the minor speech functions; the major speech functions are Command, Offer, Question and Statement.

Exclamations are usually expressed through an exclamative clause, used to express surprise and sometimes to give compliments:

What a clever girl you are!
How quickly you've grown!

Exclamative clauses typically begin with the wh-word what or how. The what or how can either be part of an initial noun group or adverbial group.

Very often in speech, exclamative clauses are reduced to just the initial wh-group of words, with ellipsis of the rest of the clause:

What a good idea [it is]!
What a day [it's been]!

Note that the terms Command, Exclamative, Offer, Question and Statement are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: Command, exclamative, Offer, Question, speech function, Statement

exclamative - Exclamative clauses always begin with the wh- words what or how. What is part of an initial noun group:

How is also part of an initial adverb group:

Note that the term Exclamation is written with an initial capital letter because it is a functional term.

Related terms: clause, clause type, Exclamation, minor speech function, mood type, speech function 

existential clause - An existential clause is one that tells us that something 'exists'. It is not telling about actions or happenings, but about a state of being. Existential clauses generally begin with the words 'there is', 'there are', 'there was', 'there have been', 'there will be', and so on:

There was an old man with a beard.
There are fifty-one states in the USA.
There will be no movie tonight.

When analysing an existential clause, the thing that exists is referred to as the Existent:

Note that the terms Existent, Existential and Process are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: doing clause, naming / describing / owning clause, relating clause, saying clause, thinking / feeling / perceiving clause

expanding - When we join two clauses, a meaning relation is created between them. One main type of meaning relation is that of expansion, ie one clause expands on the meaning of another. There are three different ways that we can expand the meaning:

	elaboration (ie, eg)
elaborating clause She's a vegetarian: she doesn't eat meat.
	extension (and, or, but, so)
extending clause He opened the door and went inside.
	enhancement (because, when, since, although, while, etc)
enhancing clause She bought the book because it looked interesting.

The other main meaning relation is projection, where one clause is projected by a saying or thinking clause:  

Related terms: clause, clause complex, elaborating, enhancing, extending, projecting

experiential function - This is one of the three main functions. The experiential function serves to represent our experience of the world. We use language to talk about what is going on around us and to make sense of our lives.

When we look at a clause in terms of how it is representing experience, we analyse it in terms of:

	What's happening? (the Process)
	Who's involved? (the Participants)
	What are the surrounding details: When? Where? How? etc (the Circumstances)

The other two main functions of language are to enable us to interact (the interpersonal function) and to create text (the textual function).

Related terms: interpersonal function, textual function

extending - When we combine two elements, we sometimes need to describe the meaning relationship between them. We use the term 'extending' to refer to those elements that follow the pattern 'X + Y'. They are generally linked by conjunctions such as and, but, so, or:

We extend an element by adding information, giving exceptions, or offering an alternative.

Related terms: clause, clause complex, elaborating, enhancing, expanding

Feeler - The Feeler is a Participant in a thinking / feeling / perceiving clause, specifically a feeling clause:

Kitty liked her new game.
Feeler                             

Note that the terms Feeler, Participant and What-is-felt are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: Participant, thinking / feeling / perceiving clause, What-is-felt  

Finite - The Finite is part of the verb group, and is normally expressed by an auxiliary verb. The Finite is always the first auxiliary in a finite verb group:

Ricky should finish his homework.
           Finite

The role of the Finite is to express either modality (as in the above example) or primary tense, with respect to the moment of speaking:

Ricky is finishing his homework.
Ricky had finished his homework.

The Finite element of the verb group (together with the Subject) makes the clause a proposition. This means that it is possible to argue about it:

    Ricky      has        finished his homework.
    Subject       Finite

We can disagree if we choose (No he hasn't) or agree (Yes, he has finished his homework).

Note that the terms Finite and Subject are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: auxiliary verb, finite clause, finite verb, modality, non-finite clause, non-finite verb, Subject

finite clause - A finite clause is a clause which contains a finite verb:

Kitty finished her homework last night.
       finite verb

The following sentence consists of two finite clauses:

When I got home, I finished my homework.
       finite verb             finite verb

Related terms: finite verb, non-finite clause, non-finite verb

finite verb - A finite verb agrees with the person and number of its Subject:

I walk
she walks
they walk

It also generally changes its form when the tense changes:

I sing
I sang

Note that the form verb + s, (goes, kicks or has) is always finite, while the forms verb + -ing, (going, kicking or having), and to-infinitive (to go, to kick or to have) are always non-finite.

They were walking to school.
                non-finite

To get to school, I had to change buses twice.
non-finite

The form verb + -ed may be finite or non-finite:

Tired and hungry, the students walked home.
non-finite                                                finite

Note that the term Subject is written with an initial capital letter because it is a functional term.

Related terms: finite clause, infinitive, non-finite clause, non-finite verb, Subject

first conditional - This refers to a two-clause structure which is used to express possible or likely situations, with their point of reference lying in the present:

If Kitty is on time, she will be able to join us for dinner. [she might be on time]
  dependent clause                              independent clause

The first conditional typically has the following structure:

Dependent clause:    If + Subject + present simple
Independent clause:   Subject + will + infinitive

Note that the term Subject is written with an initial capital letter because it is a functional term.

Related terms: second conditional, subjunctive, tense, third conditional

free indirect speech - This structure is intermediate between direct speech and indirect speech, ie between quoting and reporting:

She didn't believe him  // Granny said. [free indirect speech]
          reported clause             reporting clause

Granny said (that) she didn't believe him. [indirect speech]
     reporting clause              reported clause

Granny said, "I don't believe you." [direct speech]
quoting clause           quoted clause

Related terms: direct speech, indirect speech, mood, person, quoting, reference, reporting, reported clause, reporting clause, tense

function - We can use the term 'function' to refer to the major jobs that language performs in our lives. Language functions, for example, to enable us to interact with others. It also functions to represent our experience of the world.

We can also use the term to refer to the grammatical work being done by an element of language. If, for example, we are interested in how language represents experience, we can describe how the grammar is functioning in this way by using 'function labels':

The terms Participant, Process and Circumstance are written with a capital letter to show that they are functional terms.

Functional labels can be contrasted with class labels (or 'form'). We can describe the word 'Granny' in terms of its grammatical class (ie noun) or we can refer to the job it is doing (ie representing the Participant).

Related terms: class, functional grammar

functional grammar - There are many different types of grammatical description. Functional grammars are interested in how language is used in everyday life. They attempt to explain how language works to meet our needs in a variety of contexts.

The particular functional grammar which informs PrimeGram is called Systemic Functional Grammar, developed by Michael Halliday. Many teachers have found this to be a useful grammar for language teaching. Functional Grammar looks at how language has evolved to perform different functions. Two major functions which language serves are (a) to understand the world around us and (b) to interact with others. Functional Grammar describes how grammar is used to do these things and how our use of language varies from context to context, depending on what we are talking about, who we are talking to, and what mode of communication we are using (oral or written).

Related terms: function, grammar, traditional grammars

future simple - The future simple is formed with the modal auxiliary will / shall + bare infinitive. We can never really know what will happen in the future, and so there is a degree of uncertainty in any reference to future time. This helps to explain why we use a modal verb.

The future is typically used to indicate our intentions and to make predictions about the future, often in conditional clauses:

If I win the Mark Six, I will buy a big house.

The future is also used to talk about a future action at the moment when we decide to do it (often when offering to do something):

It is very hot in here - I'll open a window.

Related terms: modal auxiliary verb, bare infinitive, base form, infinitive, tense

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general determiner - General determiners are used to make general statements about people, animals, things and events. They include a/an, each, every, either, neither, both, all, some, no and any:

	indefinite article (a/an): Granny Gong had an idea.
	singular determiners (each, every, either, neither): "Every pool is empty," the children told Granny Gong.

	plural determiners (both, all, some): Granny Gong loved both granddaughters equally.
	numberless determiners (any, no, some): "Is there any clean water?" asked MegaMonster.

no determiner: Miss Lee said that tigers are struggling for survival.

As with all determiners, a general determiner functions as Pointer in the noun group to further 'specify' the Thing and occurs at the beginning of the noun group.

Note that the terms Pointer and Thing are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: determiner, indefinite reference, noun group, Pointer, specific determiner

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general reference  - General reference occurs when we make general and classifying statements about people, animals, things and events. This can be done with singular determiners (a, each, every), plural determiners (all, some), numberless determiners (any, some) or no determiner with a plural noun:

A cat is a type of mammal.

There are winners and losers in all races.
Wouldn't you like to watch some TV ? 
Miss Lee said that tigers are struggling for survival.

In formal contexts, the determiner the can also be used for general reference:

In Chinese society the teacher is highly respected.

Related terms: classifying reference, definite reference, determiner, indefinite reference, noun group, Pointer, reference

genre - In everyday language the word genre is often used to talk about works of art which belong to the same category, eg a book or a film might belong to the science fiction genre, the historical romance genre or the crime genre; a piece of music might belong to the classical genre or the canto-pop genre.

In language studies the word genre is a technical term used to talk about texts which belong to the same text type category. In other words, all texts which use the same general language patterns, and the same overall text structure to achieve the same general communicative purpose, belong to the same genre. For example, all texts which enable people to make and do things by providing a series of steps, belong to the genre 'instructions'.

Related terms: text, text type

grammar - Grammar is a description of patterns of language which make meaning. Speakers and writers of a language make meaning using the language patterns which are possible in the language. 

For example, in English there are four possible language patterns for structuring clauses in order to interact with others: declarative, yes/no interrogative, wh- interrogative and imperative.

	declarative	He            has         eaten his dinner. Subject   auxiliary verb
	yes/no interrogative	Has        he        eaten his dinner yet? auxiliary verb   Subject
	wh- interrogative	When         did           he      eat his dinner? wh- word   auxiliary verb    Subject
	imperative	Eat your dinner now!

Related terms: functional grammar, syntax, traditional grammars

group - This refers to a group of words that are meaningfully related to each other. There are four main types of word groups:

	noun group: the lovely big red balloon
	adjective group: really good; as happy as a lark; sad to leave; quicker than a fox
	verb group: was walking; has been told; is going to leave
	adverb group: very softly; as slowly as possible

These are sometimes referred to as 'nominal group', 'adjectival group', 'verbal group' and 'adverbial group'.

In other grammars, these might be called phrases rather than groups. In a functional grammar, however, the term 'group' refers to a collection of words that build up around a 'head' word:

The term 'phrase' is reserved for prepositional phrases, which have a different structure (ie preposition + noun group):

Related terms: noun group, adjective group, verb group, adverb group

Head - The main noun in a noun group is called Head:

Ricky was reading an adventure story by his favourite writer. 
                               Pre-Modifier    Head          Post-Modifier
                                               n  o  u  n     g  r  o  u  p

The words in the noun group before the Head (an exciting adventure) are called 'Pre-Modifier', and those after the Head (by his favourite writer) are called 'Post-Modifier'.

Note that the terms Head, Post-Modifier and Pre-Modifier are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: Post-Modifier, Pre-Modifier, Thing

imperative - We typically use the imperative (or an imperative clause) to express the major speech function Command:

Stop writing now!

The Subject of an imperative clause is most commonly you. We usually omit you because it is understood in this context. However, it can be expressed for special emphasis:

Sit down now!   or  You  sit down now!
   (no Subject)             Subject

Another common Subject in an imperative clause is you and me, usually expressed as us (as in let's). We can also express the Subject in its full form for emphasis:

Let    us    go then, you and I ... [very formal, written style]
      Subject

The verb form used in imperative clauses is the non-finite or 'base form':

Speak up now!   Have a seat!   Please take a ticket!   Be quiet!

Note that the terms Command and Subject are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: base form, Command, declarative, non-finite verb, speech function, Statement, Subject

indefinite article - The indefinite article belongs to a subgroup of determiners called non-specific determiners. 

These fall into several subgroups: they may specify all of the possible Things, either positively (each), or negatively (neither); or only some of the possible Things, either selecting one (one, either), or not selecting anything definite (a/an). In addition, the forms vary according to number: singular (each, neither), plural including mass nouns (both, all, some), or not distinguishing for number (no, any).

Related terms: definite article, determiner

indefinite reference - When we refer to something with the indefinite article a/an, we are using 'indefinite reference': 

Granny Gong gave Kitty a big feather and sent her out into the harbour on a little boat.

Here the storyteller refers to things without being specific: a feather, a boat. If the storyteller then goes on to refer to either the feather or the boat, cohesion is created by linking the noun with the indefinite article a/an to the noun with the definite article the, or a pronoun. 

We use indefinite reference with a/an for several different tasks: 

Related terms: classifying reference, definite reference, general reference

indentation - When we start a new paragraph in English we often indent, leaving a space at the beginning of the first line:

independent clause - An independent clause, also known as a main clause, is one that does not depend on another clause. It can normally stand alone.

MegaMonster was angry // because Granny Gong was ruining his evil plans.
       independent clause                dependent clause                   

When the ghost found no popcorn, // he became really grumpy.
       dependent clause                                              independent clause

First he smashed a cup.
      independent clause

A sentence, in traditional grammar, is either made up of a single independent clause or of several clauses (a clause complex), one of which must be independent.

Related terms: clause, clause complex, clause structure, dependent clause, dominant clause, main clause 

indirect object - The indirect object of a verb is the noun, pronoun or noun group that receives the direct object or benefits from it in some way. The indirect object usually appears before the direct object:

Miss Lee gave Kitty a blank tape.
We bought Grandpa a cordless phone.

The indirect object may also follow the direct object (after the preposition to or for):

Miss Lee gave a blank tape to Kitty.
We bought a cordless phone for Grandpa. 

Related terms: direct object, object

indirect speech - Indirect speech is a reporting structure in which we do not use the exact words that someone says or thinks, and so time and person reference often shift.

Granny said (that) she didn't believe him. [indirect speech]
     reporting clause              reported clause

Granny said, "I don't believe you." [direct speech]
quoting clause           quoted clause

In the indirect speech structure above, time and person reference are shifted from present tense don't believe to past tense didn't believe, and from 1st and 2nd person I and you to 3rd person she and him. The reporting clause usually comes before the reported clause.

Related terms: direct speech, free indirect speech, quoted clause, quoting, quoting clause, reported clause, reporting, reporting clause

infinitive - The infinitive is the base form of the verb (do, be, have, eat). The infinitive may be used alone, called bare infinitive:

Miss Lee helped them make a decision.
                              bare infinitive

The infinitive is usually used in conjunction with to, called to-infinitive:

I want to work alone.
         to-infinitive

Note that the to-infinitive can be used to bind independent and dependent clauses:

Bozo had to jump up and down  //  to keep himself warm.  
            independent clause                        dependent clause

Related term: base form, dependent clause, independent clause

-ing clause - Some clauses do not contain a finite ('full') verb. Some contain a non-finite verb, such as a present participle:

Because most present participles end in -ing, these clauses are sometimes referred to as -ing clauses.

Thinking it was Friday, she went to school.
She came home again, feeling a bit stupid.

The -ing clause is always dependent (it cannot stand on its own).

Related terms: binding relation, clause, clause complex, dependent clause, independent clause, non-finite clause, participle, sentence, Subject, subordination, non-finite verb 

-ing form - The -ing form of the verb refers to the form of the verb that ends in -ing. Traditionally this is called the 'present participle' or the 'gerund', depending on its function. An important function of the -ing form is to express the continuous aspect (also called progressive aspect):

I am going home soon.
present continuous

The -ing form sometimes functions as the Subject of a clause, in a role more commonly expressed by a noun:

Walking is my favourite pastime.
  Subject

Note that the -ing form can be used to bind dependent and independent clauses:

Walking for a whole day, // Miss lee finally came to the house of her cousin. 
      dependent clause                                               independent clause

Note that the term Subject is written with an initial capital letter because it is a functional term.

Related terms: dependent clause, -ed /-en form, independent clause, non-finite clause, progressive aspect, Subject

initiating clause - When we look at a pair of clauses in terms of sequence, we say that the first clause is the initiating clause of the sequence and the following clause (or clauses) are the continuing clauses:

  Ricky was tired      //     so he went home.
    initiating clause                       continuing clause

  Ricky went home     //      and went to bed.
     initiating clause                        continuing clause

This simply indicates which clause comes first and which comes second. It doesn't tell us anything about the meaning relationship between the clauses. We use the terms 'initiating' and 'continuing' when the clauses are of equal status.

Related terms: clause combining, clause complex, continuing clause, linking relation 

instructions - Instructions tell us how to do things. We typically use instructions when we are learning how to do something which is new and which may be difficult, for example, preparing food, making something, repairing a broken piece of equipment, or playing a game.

Instructions can be written or spoken. Written instructions include recipes and instruction manuals. Spoken instructions include telling students how to carry out an activity or giving directions. Written instructions generally consist of predictable stages such as lists of ingredients or materials, followed by a series of steps to be followed. The language features of instructions are also reasonably easy to predict and include simple noun groups for the EQUIPMENT stage and imperatives and modal verbs for the STEPS stage.

Related terms: text type

intensifier - An intensifier makes a meaning stronger. It is usually expressed by an adverb: 

She was  very  angry.
             adverb

Sometimes the term intensifier is also used to include words that 'tone down' the meaning, eg She was a bit angry.

Intensifiers can modify an adjective (He is extremely clever) or an adverb (He ate quite slowly).

Related terms: adjective, adverb

interpersonal function - Language plays different functions in our lives. One of the most important functions is to enable us to interact with others, in such ways as:

	asking questions
	giving responses
	making commands
	expressing opinions
	indicating probability

Interpersonal meanings are expressed grammatically by language resources such as:

	mood (interrogative, declarative and imperative)
	modality (degree of probability)
	evaluative vocabulary (expressing judgements, opinions, comments, feelings)
	polarity: positive (yes) and negative (no/not)
	terms of address (titles, nicknames, endearments, etc)
	taboo language

Our choice of such interpersonal features will depend on the context: ie what is culturally appropriate, who we are interacting with, the degree of authority, expertise, familiarity, and so on.

In addition to the interpersonal functions you should also be aware of the other important functions of language:

	to represent our experience of the world (the experiential function)
	to construct text (the textual function)

Related terms: experiential function, modality, mood, polarity, tenor, textual function

interrogative - There are two types of interrogatives: yes/no interrogatives and wh- interrogatives. We commonly use both types of interrogatives (or interrogative clauses) to ask Questions.

In a yes/no interrogative the finite verb comes before the Subject, ie the normal word order of Subject before finite verb in a declarative is reversed:

In wh- interrogatives we use wh- words (who, whom, what, where, why, when, how). The word order in a wh- interrogative depends on what role the wh- word plays in the clause, ie what element of the clause it stands for. If the wh- word is the Subject of the interrogative clause, then its order is the same as in a declarative, ie Subject before finite verb. However, if the wh- word is not the Subject, then the order is finite verb before Subject, the same as in a yes/no interrogative:

Note that the terms Question and Subject are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: declarative, finite verb, imperative, main verb, Subject, wh- interrogative, yes/no interrogative

interrogative determiner - Interrogative determiners are used to find out the identity of specific people, animals, things and events. They are which, whichever, what, whatever and whose.

They do this either directly or indirectly:

	by asking the identity of the Thing directly, eg Which shoes are you going to wear? [shoes]  What subject do you like best?  [subject]
	by asking the identity of the Thing indirectly via 'ownership', eg Whose shoes are these? [owner of shoes]

As with all determiners, an interrogative determiner functions as Pointer in the noun group to further 'specify' the Thing and occurs at the beginning of the noun group.

Related terms: determiner, interrogative pronoun, noun group, Pointer, Thing, wh- interrogative, yes/no interrogative

interrogative pronoun - These typically begin with 'wh' (what, which, who, whom, whose), and are used in interrogative clauses, typically to ask Questions. Interrogative pronouns can be used as the subject of a clause:

What is that noise?
subject

or as the direct object of a clause:

Who did Bozo see?
object

Note that 'Question' is written with a capital to remind us that it is a functional term.

Related terms: interrogative determiner, pronoun, wh- interrogative, yes/no interrogative 

intonation - Intonation describes whether the voice rises, falls or stays level as we speak. English has distinct patterns of intonation which stretch across clauses and which are related to speech functions. The intonation of English adds the 'melody' to the rhythmic 'beat' of the stress pattern. The most basic patterns are falling and rising intonation.

We use falling intonation when we finish a clause and when we are certain about what we are saying, typically with statements. We also use falling intonation for wh questions when we are asking for some missing information:

                              
We're going to sit outside. 

                                   
So what are you doing today? 

We use rising intonation at the end of a question when we are confirming whether something is true or not. Often we use a yes/no question to do this. We can also use a rising intonation with a wh- question to show surprise or disbelief.

           
Is that yours? 

                    
Who did you meet? 

Related terms: clause, clause type, mood type, speech function 

intransitive verb - An intransitive verb is used to represent an action or event that involves just one person or thing. It therefore normally has a Subject but no object:

The children laughed. [intransitive verb]
 Subject

By contrast, transitive verbs have an object: 

The dog chased the cat. [transitive verb]
 Subject                    object

Many verbs are both transitive and intransitive:

The vase broke. [intransitive verb]
  Subject

The cat broke the vase. [transitive verb]
  Subject                  object

Verbs which can be both transitive and intransitive, such as break, are sometimes discussed as 'ergative' rather than 'transitive'. 

Note that the term Subject is written with an initial capital letter because it is a functional term.

Related terms: ditransitive verb, ergative, object, Subject, transitive verb

inverted commas - Inverted commas are a form of punctuation used to indicate direct speech, quoted phrases, or the titles of films, books etc. They are also known as quotation marks. They are placed at the beginning and end of the quoted clause or title. Inverted commas can be single ( ' ... ' ) or double ( " ... " ):

Granny said, "That's the last we'll see of you". [direct speech]
quoting clause                     quoted clause
                          inverted commas around quoted clause

Related terms: direct speech, punctuation, quotation marks, quoted clause, quoting clause

lexical verb - (also called 'main' verb). This is a verb that comes after all of the auxiliary verbs in a verb group:

Dotty  should     finish   her homework.
          auxiliary    lexical verb

Related terms: auxiliary verb 

linker - A linker is a conjunction that joins two elements of equal status, ie both elements are 'free' or independent (they can stand on their own). The most common linkers are and, but and or:

These elements are said to be in a linking relation.

By contrast, a binder is a conjunction that joins two elements of unequal status. That is, one element is dependent on the other and can't stand alone:

They ran to the shops because they wanted an icecream.

Related terms: linking relation, clause, clause complex, conjunction, coordinate conjunction, coordination

linking relation - A linking relation is one where two elements of equal status are joined together:

This relationship is often referred to as 'coordination'.

This is in contrast with a binding relation, where two elements of unequal status are joined together:

Related terms: linker, clause, clause complex, conjunction, coordinate conjunction, coordination

main clause - A main clause, also known as an independent clause, is one that does not depend on another clause. It can normally stand alone.

MegaMonster was angry // because Granny Gong was ruining his evil plans.
               main clause                                            dependent clause                   

When the ghost found no popcorn, // he became really grumpy.
               dependent clause                                              main clause

A sentence is either made up of a single independent clause or of several clauses (a clause complex), one of which must be independent.

Related terms: clause, clause complex, complex sentence, compound sentence, dependent clause, independent clause, sentence, simple sentence  

main verb - The main verb of a verb group is the part which represents the main meaning of the verb group. It normally comes at the end of the group:

Bozo must have been watching TV all night, he looks so tired.

Related terms: auxiliary verb, verb, verb group

major clause - A major clause is one that contains either a finite ('complete') or a non-finite ('incomplete') verb.

A major clause that is independent will always contain a Subject and a finite verb:

A major clause that is dependent can also contain a Subject and a finite verb:

A dependent or embedded major clause sometimes has no Subject or finite verb:

Unlike a major clause, a minor clause contains no verb element (eg Ouch! Hi!)

Related terms: clause clause structure, clause type, declarative, finite clause, finite verb, minor clause, mood type 

major speech function - The four major speech functions are:

	Statement (He was helping her.)
	Command (Help me! Stop that!)
	Question (Who was helping her?)
	Offer (Can I help you?)

Major speech functions typically consist of a complete clause (whereas minor speech functions typically do not). 

Note that the terms Command, Offer, Question and Statement are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: minor speech function, speech function 

marked - We use the term 'marked' to refer to a choice that is not typical. The most typical choice is called the 'unmarked' (or default) choice.

If, for example, we are looking at what comes first in the clause (the 'Theme'), the unmarked choice will be the Subject of the verb:

If, however, the first element is not the Subject, then we say that the Theme is 'marked':

Note that the terms Subject and Theme are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: Command, declarative, imperative, speech function, Theme, unmarked

meaning relation - When we combine two elements, a meaning relation is created between them. There are two main types of meaning relation: expansion and projection

Expansion is when one element expands the meaning of another. There are three different ways that we can expand the meaning:

	elaboration (ie, eg)
elaborating clause She's a vegetarian; she doesn't eat meat.
	extension (and, or, but, so)
		extending clause He opened the door; and went inside.
	enhancement (because, when, since, although, while, etc)
		enhancing clause She bought the book because it looked interesting.

Projection is where an element is projected by a saying or thinking clause: 

Related terms: binding relation, clause, clause combining clause complex, combining relation, coordination, linking relation, sentence subordination, projecting, projection, quoting, reporting, expansion, expanding, extending, enhancing, elaborating

measure expression - We use 'measure expressions' to indicate how much of a thing there is. They either group things (lots, many, few) or they compare things (fewer, more). 

Some measure expressions indicate a specific quantity (a pint of, a litre of, a kilo of, five tonnes of); other measure expressions refer to the container (a box of, a bottle of, a bag of, a sack of). 

Many common measure expressions express an inexact quantity, such as few, little, a bit of, fewer, less, more. 

Note that the term Qualifier is written with an initial capital letter because it is a functional term.

Related terms: noun group, number word, order word, Qualifier, quantity word 

minor clause - A minor clause contains no verb element. Minor clauses include:

	Greeting (Hello, Hi, Goodbye, Goodnight)
	Exclamation (Ouch! Yuck! Nonsense! Rubbish! What a mess!)
	Call (also called 'Vocative') (Hey, kids! Kitty! Granny!)
	Alarm (Fire! Danger!)

Note that the terms Alarm, Call, Exclamation, Greeting and Vocative are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: clause, clause structure, major clause, minor speech function

minor speech function - Minor speech functions are:

	Greeting (Hello, Hi, Goodbye, Goodnight)
	Exclamation (Ouch! Yuck! Nonsense! Rubbish! What a mess!)
	Call (also called 'Vocative') (Hey, kids! Kitty! Granny!)
	Alarm (Fire! Danger!)

They are called 'minor' speech functions because they are typically expressed by a minor clause, ie containing no verb element. This is in contrast to 'major' speech functions which typically consist of a complete clause.

Note that the terms Alarm, Call, Exclamation, Greeting and Vocative are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: major speech function, speech function 

modal adverb - Modal adverbs can tell us how probable something is or how usual something is. We can arrange them in terms of high, mid or low modality:

Related terms: adverb, modality 

modal auxiliary verb - A modal auxiliary verb is a special type of verb which can be used to express a range of meanings. There are ten modal verbs in English:

Modal verbs can be used to indicate how certain we feel about something:

It might rain tomorrow. [not very certain]
It will rain tomorrow. [very certain]

We also use modal verbs to indicate our attitude towards other people we are speaking to:

You must do your homework. [obligation]
You may go to the cinema. [permission]

Related terms: modality, semi-modal verb

modality - We use modality to indicate how likely the speaker judges the statement to be.

A statement can be judged 'very likely':

It is definitely too late.

Or it can be judged 'less likely':

Perhaps it is too late.

Modality can be used to express one of several meanings:

	degree of certainty about a statement (She must be right. She might be wrong.)
	degree of obligation or willingness to do something (She must leave. She could leave.)
	degree of usuality (He is always right. He is sometimes wrong.)

Modality can be expressed through modal auxiliary verbs (must, may), modal adverbs (certainly, possibly), and also through adjectives (certain, possible) and nouns (certainty, possibility).

Related terms: modal adverb, modal auxiliary verb

mood - This term refers to the system of independent clauses: declarative, interrogative and imperative. For details, see 'mood type'.

Related terms: mood type

mood type - Independent clauses form a system called 'mood', and the main clause types are sometimes also called mood types.

	declarative	She has eaten her dinner.
	interrogative: yes/no interrogative	Has she eaten her dinner yet?
	interrogative: wh- interrogative	When did she eat her dinner?
	imperative	Eat your dinner now!

There are two important structural differences between these mood types:

Firstly, declarative and interrogative have both Subject (she) and Finite (has/did), while imperative has no explicit Subject (though you is 'understood' as Subject) and typically has a non-finite verb expressing 'Finite' (eat!, go!, be!).

Secondly, declarative and interrogative have a different order for Subject and Finite, with a further difference between the two types of interrogatives:

Note that the terms Finite and Subject are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: clause type, clause structure, dependent clause, Finite, finite verb, independent clause, major clause, minor clause, non-finite verb, Subject

Name - The term 'Name' is used for a Participant in a relating clause, specifically a 'naming' or 'identifying' clause: 

Granny Gong was the detective. [Granny played the detective.]
       Name                          Named

The Participant 'Name' is typically expressed by a proper noun or noun group. As naming or identifying clauses are reversible, the noun group usually has a definite article as Pointer: 

The detective was Granny Gong. [The detective was played by Granny.]
       Named                          Name

Note that the terms Name, Named and Participant are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related term: Named, naming / describing / owning clause 

Named - The term 'Named' is used for a Participant in a relating clause, specifically a 'naming' or 'identifying' clause: 

Granny Gong was the detective. [Granny played the detective.]
       Name                         Named

The Participant 'Named' is typically expressed by a proper noun or a noun group. As naming or identifying clauses are reversible, the noun group usually has a definite article as Pointer:

The detective was Granny Gong. [The detective was played by Granny.]
       Named                          Name

Note that the terms Name, Named and Participant are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related term: Named, naming / describing / owning clause 

naming / describing / owning clause - A 'naming' clause names or identifies something for us and answers the question What is it?:

Miss Lee is my teacher.

A 'describing' clause describes something for us and answers the question What is it like?:

Miss Lee is very clever.

An 'owning' clause indicates a relationship of possession and answers the question What does it have?:

Miss Lee has long, black hair.

Because these clause types are concerned with relating, we can use the term 'relating' clause. 'Relating' clauses are a constant feature of our everyday life. We need them to identify and describe the world around us. 

Note that the terms Described, Description, Name, Named, Owned and Owner are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: Described, Description, doing clause, Name, Named, Owned, Owner, relating clause, saying clause, thinking / feeling / perceiving clause 

negative - The system of polarity in English allows us to choose whether a clause is positive or negative.

The default case is for the clause to be positive. Positive clauses can be made negative in three main ways. In some cases the finite verb is made negative by the word not, often reduced to n't.

MegaMonster was not happy.

In other cases negativity is expressed by no or neither in front of a noun, or by a negative pronoun such as nobody.

Nobody could find the DreamGenie.

In other cases negativity is expressed by an adverb such as never, rarely, no longer or no more.

Miss Lee had never seen the children so tired.

Related terms: finite verb, polarity, positive 

New Information - New Information is what a speaker or writer puts typically towards the end of the clause:

Mr Gong  gave Bozo a soccer ball.
  Theme             New Information

The beginning of the clause, or Theme, tells the reader what the message is about. The rest of the clause is called New Information. We can of course vary what we make New Information in a clause:

Note that he most significant 'new' information likely to come at the very end of the clause.

The terms New Information and Theme are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: Theme

nominalisation - In its simplest sense, the term nominalisation means 'to turn something into a noun'. In spoken language, for example, we tend to use verbs:

The train arrived late so they cancelled their trip.

 In written language, however, we tend to change the verbs into nouns:

The late arrival of the train resulted in the cancellation of their trip.

 Nominalisation can also refer to cases where a clause is used in the 'slot' usually occupied by a noun:

Related terms: clause, Subject

non-defining relative clause - A non-defining relative clause (sometimes called 'non-restrictive' relative clause) gives additional, non-essential information about another clause, either about the persons, animals, things etc named in a noun group, or about the whole happening expressed in the clause:

The Gong family moved into a new apartment, which had been built a year ago.

Here the non-defining relative clause who was called SleepStealer gives additional information about just one element in the main clause, ie one of his MischiefMakers. 

In some cases the non-defining relative clause gives additional information about the whole of the main clause:

The children were sleeping in Miss Lee's class, which upset her greatly.

The relative clause is linked to the first clause by a relative pronoun such as who, which, whose. A non-defining relative clause is usually separated from the main clause by a comma. 

Related terms: defining relative clause

non-finite clause - A non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite verb as its main verb:

Walking to school, I saw a very funny sight.
non-finite verb  

Related terms: non-finite verb, finite verb

non-finite verb - A non-finite verb has no tense and occurs as an infinitive (to-infinitive or bare infinitive), or a participle (-ing form or  -ed /-en form):

To err is human; to forgive is divine. 
to-infinitive                to-infinitive

Walking to school, I saw a very funny sight.
-ing form

Frightened by the ghost, I ran away.
-ed form

Related terms: bare infinitive, -ed /-en form, finite verb, -ing form, to-infinitive

non-specific determiner - This is another way of referring to general determiners, which are used to make general statements about people, animals, things and events. They include a/an, each, every, either, neither, both, all, some, no and any:

	indefinite article (a/an): Granny Gong had an idea.
	singular determiners (each, every): "Every pool is empty," the children told Granny Gong.

	plural determiners (both, all, some): Granny Gong loved both granddaughters equally.
	numberless determiners (any, no, some): "Is there any clean water?" asked MegaMonster.

no determiner: Miss Lee said that tigers are struggling for survival.

As with all determiners, a non-specific determiner functions as Pointer in the noun group to further 'specify' the Thing and occurs at the beginning of the noun group.

Note that the terms Pointer and Thing are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: determiner, general determiner, Pointer, specific determiner, Thing

noun - Nouns are used to name or refer to people, animals, things and abstractions:

Kitty liked her new school uniform. 
noun                                 noun       noun 

Nouns are always part of a noun group, usually as Thing (or as Head in a different perspective), but they also express other functions:

   Kitty    liked  her new school  uniform. 
   Thing                                    Thing          Thing
noun group                          noun group

Nouns can be divided into a number of subcategories, eg abstract nouns, collective nouns, common nouns etc. 

Note that the terms Classifier and Thing are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: abstract noun, collective noun, common noun, countable noun, noun group, pronoun, proper noun, uncountable noun

noun clause - A noun clause, in traditional grammar, is a clause that functions like a noun.

One category of noun clause is called a clause nominalisation. In the example below, this noun clause is embedded in the main clause where it functions as Subject:

That Granny Gong was a detective impressed Bozo's friends.
                      noun clause                               main clause
                          Subject

Another category of noun clause includes quoted clauses in direct speech and reported clauses in indirect speech.

Kitty said to Granny: "Our water has been stolen." [direct speech]     quoting clause             quoted clause = noun clause Kitty told Granny that their water had been stolen. [indirect speech]   reporting clause         reported clause = noun clause

Related terms: clause, nominalisation, noun clause, quoted clause, reported clause, Subject

noun group - This is a group of words in which the main word is a noun. We can call this main word the Head of the group:

Bozo switched on his brand new computer.
                                                    Head

Noun groups sometimes consist of only one word:

Computers can be expensive.
      Head

Sometimes a pronoun or even an adjective can be the Head of a noun group:

He     spoke quietly.
Head

Only the good die young.
              Head

In some grammars you will find the term 'noun phrase' or 'nominal group' instead of noun group.

Note that the term Head is written with an initial capital letter because it is a functional term.

Related terms: Head, noun, Participant, pronoun, Thing

number - The number system in English makes us choose between singular and plural, eg one child (sing.), three children (pl.).  

The choice of number is reflected in the forms of nouns, pronouns and verbs; pronouns and verbs simultaneously reflect our choice in a system of 'person' (first person, second person, third person). The table gives you some examples of the different forms associated with the number system:

This concept of number system is important for understanding the subject-verb agreement.

  The dog               was                angry
noun (sing.)     verb (sing. 3rd person) 
    Subject                    Process

  The dogs                 were           angry 
pronoun (pl.)        verb (pl. 1st person) 
   Subject                          Process

Note that the terms Subject and Process are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: dual, person, plural, singular

number word - There are two kinds of number words, quantity words and order words:

	quantity words (one, two, a couple, a third, much, little, fewer)   These tell us how many things there are or how much of a thing there is
	order words (first, second, next, last, preceding, prior)  These tell us where in a sequence of things something occurs

There are seven days in a week. [how many days?]
Mr Gong had lots of work to do over the weekend. [how much work?]
Kitty competed in the first race. [which one in a sequence of races?]

Related terms: measure expression, noun group, order word, quantity word

object - The object is the noun, noun group or pronoun in a clause which refers to a person or thing other than the subject which is affected by the action of the verb:

    I      need  you.
subject    verb  object

Related terms: direct object, indirect object, noun group, subject 

Offer - This is one of the four major speech functions; the others are Command, Question and Statement.

When you want to give someone something or do something for someone, you make an Offer:

Would you like one of these?
Let me help you.

In making an Offer, you are offering to give some 'goods' to the listener (Would you like one of these?), or offering to do a 'service' for them (Let me help you).

The most typical way of making an Offer is with an interrogative form; however, you can make Offers using imperative and declarative forms as well.

Note that the terms Command, Offer, Question and Statement are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: Command, declarative, imperative, interrogative, Question, speech function, Statement

order word - We use order words (first, second, next, last) to specify where in a sequence of things something occurs:

Ricky only managed    third    place in the race.
                             order word

Some order words specify the exact place of things, eg ordinal numbers first, second, third, last. Others specify an inexact place, eg next, preceding, subsequent.

Related terms: cardinal number, measure expression, number word, order word, ordinal number, quantity word

ordinal number - An ordinal number is an 'order word' in the series first, second, third ... . Ordinal numbers typically express the Quantifier in a noun group, specifying in what order the Thing (persons, animals, things, events etc) in a noun group comes relative to other persons etc: 

Kitty won     second      prize  in the story competition. 
                         Quantifier       Thing
                   ordinal number    noun

Ordinal numbers contrast with cardinal numbers or 'quantity words' in the series one, two, three ... .

Note that the terms Quantifier and Thing are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: cardinal number

Owned - The term 'Owned' is used for a Participant in a relating clause, specifically an 'owning' clause: 

Bozo has an old dog. 
Owner              Owned

The Participant 'Owned' is typically expressed by a noun group (a dog, a car).

Note that the terms Owner and Owned are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related term: Owner, naming / describing / owning clause, relating clause 

Owner - The term 'Owner' is used for a Participant in a relating clause, specifically an 'owning' clause: 

Bozo has an old dog. 
Owner             Owned

The Participant 'Owner' is typically expressed by a proper noun (Bozo, Kitty) or a noun group (the boy, a girl).

Note that the terms Owner and Owned are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related term: Owned, naming / describing / owning clause, relating clause 

Participant - This is a functional term for talking about 'what is going on' in a text. One of the functions of grammar is to represent our experience of the world: the actions and events taking place (Processes), and the people and things participating in those actions and events (Participants).

Granny Gong     was eating    her lunch.
Participant                     Process           Participant

   Rain     ruined  the concert.
Participant   Process    Participant

In the first clause, both Granny Gong and her lunch are Participants in the Process (to) eat, and in the second clause both rain and the concert are Participants in the Process (to) ruin.

We can use the term Participant to refer to things that are human (Granny Gong), non-human (my dog) or non-animate (her lunch). It can also refer to happenings, events (concert, rain), and even abstractions (idea, question). Participants usually take the form of noun groups, which may consist of a few words (her lunch), a single noun (Granny Gong, rain) or a pronoun (she, it):

The question was very difficult.       It     was impossible to answer.
    Participant                                           Participant

Note that the terms Participant and Process are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related term: noun group

participle - There are two participles in English: the present participle and the past participle.

The present participle is formed by adding -ing to the base form of the verb, sometimes with a change of spelling (run - running). The present participle is used (with the auxiliary be) to form the present continuous, past continuous etc and non-finite clauses:

It was near sunset and we were walking along the beach.
                                      past continuous

Walking along the beach, we saw the most beautiful sunset.
          non-finite clause

The past participle is typically formed by adding '-ed' or '-en' to the base form of the verb, sometimes with a change of spelling (bake - baked, break - broken). The past participle is used (with the auxiliary be) to form the passive and (with the auxiliary have) to form the present perfect, past perfect, etc:

The cake was baked only yesterday.
                  passive

Barney has broken  his leg.
             present perfect

Both present and past participles can be used descriptively in the noun group (in the functional role of Describer) instead of the more commonly-used adjective (a walking stick, a broken leg versus a heavy stick, a healthy leg).

Related terms: auxiliary verb, base form, non-finite clause, passive, present continuous, present perfect

partitive of-construction - This construction builds on the pattern of predeterminer + determiner + noun:

Barney ate      all            of        the       steak.
                 predeterminer      particle    determiner    noun 
                             P o i n t e r                               Thing

The of-construction is possible with the predeterminers all, both and half. It is optional with nouns but obligatory with pronouns:

All (of) the students were late.
Both of them were late.

The construction of predeterminer + of + determiner functions as Pointer in the noun group, with the 'partitive' of emphasising the fact that the Thing is in some way 'divisible'. 

Note that the terms Pointer and Thing are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: determiner, Pointer, predeterminer

passive voice - In a clause in passive voice the Subject and Doer of the action are expressed by different elements in the clause:

The dog was hit by the woman with a newspaper. 
  Subject                               Doer

The person, animal or thing to whom the action was done (the dog) is Subject, while the person, animal or thing who did the action (the woman) is the Doer. The passive voice is the most likely clause type in response to the question 'who/what was the action done to?':

Q: Who/what was hit with a newspaper?
A: The dog was hit with a newspaper by the woman. [passive voice clause]
       Subject                                                                  Doer

It is also of course possible to answer this question in a clause in the active voice, but this means that the information we are asking after, ie the dog, would need to be stressed:

Q: What did the woman hit with a newspaper?
A: The woman hit the dog with a newspaper. [active voice clause]
     Subject/Doer

The Doer of the action is expressed in the structure by + noun group (by the woman), but it often is omitted:

The dog was hit by the woman with a newspaper.
The dog was hit with a newspaper.

A clause in passive voice is often perceived as being somewhat impersonal, and this impression is strongest when the Doer of the action is omitted.

The verb in a passive voice clause takes the form of 'be' + -ed /-en, with the exact form depending on the verb:

The dog was hit. (to hit - no ending)
The newspaper was taken. (to take - en ending)
The door was opened. (to open - ed ending)

Note that the terms Doer and Subject are written with an initial capital because they are functional terms.

Related terms: active voice, Doer, -ed /-en form, Subject

past continuous - The past continuous (also called the 'past progressive') is formed with the past simple of the auxiliary verb be and the -ing form of the main verb. The past continuous is typically used to refer to actions or events that were in progress at some point in the past:

Kitty was watching television, when suddenly the phone rang.

Related terms: auxiliary verb, -ing form, present continuous, progressive aspect

past perfect - The past perfect is formed with the past form of the auxiliary verb have and the -ed /-en form of the main verb. It is used when the message is located in the past and we want to talk about an earlier past:

After Boris had finished his dinner, he went to bed.

Related terms: auxiliary verb, -ed /-en form, perfect aspect

past simple - The past simple of regular verbs is formed by adding '-ed' to the base form. It is the form most often used to refer to actions or states in the past:

The bombs destroyed the building.

I really liked her.

With irregular verbs, the past simple may involve a vowel change of the base form (know - knew). The spelling of the word may or may not reflect the change in pronunciation (read - read):

One of my greatest pleasures is reading. Every night I read a chapter before turning off the light. [present simple]

I knew nothing about the country before I read this script. [past simple]

Related terms: base form, tense

perfect aspect - The perfect aspect is formed with the auxiliary verb have and the -ed /-en form of the main verb. It indicates a particular relationship between one event and a later event. In this example, the perfect aspect is used to indicate that the action referred to by the verb is completed but still relevant:

Someone has broken the window!

Related terms: aspect, -ed /-en form, past perfect, progressive aspect, present perfect

Perceiver - The Perceiver is a Participant in a thinking / feeling / perceiving clause, specifically a perceiving clause:

Grandpa heard something in the kitchen.
  Perceiver

Note that the terms Participant, Perceiver and What-is-perceived are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: Participant, thinking / feeling / perceiving clause, What-is-perceived 

person - This refers to a system in English grammar which determines the choice of pronouns according to who/what is being addressed or referred to:

	Does the pronoun represent or include the person(s) who are speaking or writing? ('first person': I, me, we, us)
	Does the pronoun represent the person being addressed? ('second person': you)
	Does the pronoun represent someone (or something) other than the speaker/writer or the listener/reader? ('third person': he, she, it, they, them)

To distinguish between each of these options, we need another system called 'number'. The relationship between person and number can be illustrated with the set of subject pronouns: 

Related term: number 

personal pronoun - These are used to refer to yourself, the people that you are talking to, and the people (or things) that you are talking about. Here is the list of personal pronouns:

Related terms: person, pronoun 

phrase - Generally, the term 'phrase' is used to refer to a group of words. Here we are using it a bit more specifically to refer to prepositional phrases, that is, phrases that consist of a preposition followed by a noun group:

Related terms: preposition, noun group

phrasal verb - Phrasal verbs are verbs that are made up of two or three words (forming a short 'phrase'), but which function as a single lexical verb: 

I'm tired. It's time to   turn off   the TV.
                              phrasal verb

Phrasal verbs can usually be replaced by a single verb with similar meaning (bring back > return, hand over > give). There are three combinations possible in phrasal verbs:

	verb + adverb	Bozo's book has gone astray [missing/lost]
	verb + preposition	Miss Lee turned down the lights. [dimmed]
	verb + adverb + preposition	Dotty fell out with her best friend. [quarrelled]

Sometimes the meaning can be guessed (bring back), but not always (call off = cancel) and they therefore need to be learned as a single, multi-word unit.

Related terms: adverb, preposition, verb 

plural - This is the form of countable nouns and pronouns referring to more than one. The number system in English makes us choose between singular and plural, eg one apple (singular) or two apples (plural). 

The plural is typically marked by the presence of an 's' at the end of the noun; however, there are several exceptions involving irregular spelling (children, feet, men, mice, phenomena, sheep, women).

Related terms: dual, number, singular

Pointer - This is a functional label for a word in the noun group which answers a question such as 'which one?' or 'which ones?':

    Those     beautiful old boats in the harbour.
which ones?

In this example the determiner those answers the question 'which boats?' It is functioning as a 'Pointer', pointing (or referring) to the particular boats we are talking about.

The Pointer tells us whether we are talking about a specific thing (the boat, that boat, my boat) or not (a boat, [ ] boats). We use determiners, including the definite article (the) and the indefinite article (a/an), to point to the thing we are talking about.

Note that the term Pointer is written with an initial capital letter because it is a functional term.

Related terms: determiner, noun group

polarity - This is the system in English relating to whether a clause is positive or negative. We often need to refer to the concept of polarity when discussing things such as tag questions:

That movie was terrific, wasn't it?
           positive                     negative 

That movie wasn't very good, was it?
             negative                          positive     

Polarity is also important when discussing modality. Note what happens when the polarity changes:

It's certain that Miss Lee is not back yet.[high likelihood]
            positive                     negative 

It's not certain that Miss Lee is back yet.[low likelihood]
   negative                          positive    

The default case is for the clause to be positive. Positive clauses can be made negative in three main ways. In some cases (as in the above examples) the finite verb is made negative by the word not, often reduced to n't. In other cases negativity is expressed by no or neither in front of a noun, or by a negative pronoun such as nobody. In other cases negativity is expressed by an adverb such as never, rarely, no longer or no more.

Related terms: finite verb, negative, positive

positive - The system of polarity in English allows us to choose whether a clause is positive or negative.

The default case is for the clause to be positive. It requires words such as not, no, neither, never, rarely to make a clause negative.

Kitty arrives next Tuesday.
            positive

Kitty does not arrive next Tuesday.
                 negative

The positive / negative contrast (polarity) is used in such structures as tag questions:

That movie was terrific, wasn't it?
           positive                     negative 

That movie wasn't very good, was it?
             negative                          positive     

Related terms: negative, polarity, tag question 

possessive determiner - Possessive determiners are a sub-class of specific determiners. They include: my, your, his, her, its, one's, our, their, [John's].

Possessive determiners specify by possession relative to the speaker. Their forms vary according to number: singular (my, his, her, its, one's), plural (our, their), except that your can be singular or plural; person: 1st (my, our), 2nd (your), 3rd (his, her, its, one's, their); gender: masculine (his), feminine (her), neuter (its).

As with all determiners, a possessive determiner functions as Pointer in the noun group to further 'specify' the Thing and occurs at the beginning of the noun group.

Related terms: determiner, Pointer, possessive pronoun, specific determiner, Thing

possessive pronoun - These allow us to indicate that something is possessed by someone, or is in some way associated with them. Here is the list of possessive pronouns:

Possessive pronouns are typically used in conversation, usually in situations where you want to refer to the same type of thing that has just been mentioned, without having to repeat the word:

This is my bag and this is yours.
                              possessive pronoun

Related terms: possessive determiner, pronoun 

postdeterminer - Postdeterminers are certain adjectives that make the reference more precise, and come immediately after the determiner (if any) in a noun group but before any other adjectives. There are not many such adjectives, but they include first, last, following, next, previous, remaining, only, other:

the           other            big  purple  cushion
determiner   postdeterminer   adjectives        noun
           n   o   u   n                  g   r   o   u   p

Related terms: adjective, determiner, noun, noun group, predeterminer

Post-Modifier - A Post-Modifier is any word or group of words that comes after the Head in a noun group and adds further information about the Head noun. Post-Modifiers are typically expressed by prepositional phrases and relative clauses:

Kitty saw  the   man   waiting at the gate. [prepositional phrase] 
                              Head               Post-Modifier
                               n o u n   g r o u p

Ricky was  the   player  who scored most. [relative clause]
                             Head                 Post-Modifier
                             n o u n   g r o u p

Sometimes we prefer to say that a prepositional phrase or a relative clause following the main noun in a noun group functions as a Qualifier in a noun group, qualifying the Thing: 

Kitty saw  the   man   waiting at the gate. [prepositional phrase] 
                             Thing             Qualifier
                                    n o u n   g r o u p

Ricky was  the   player  who scored most. [relative clause]
                             Thing                       Qualifier
                             n o u n   g r o u p

Note that the terms Head, Post-Modifier, Qualifier and Thing are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: Head, noun group, Pre-Modifier, prepositional phrase, Qualifier, relative clause, Thing

predeterminer - A predeterminer precedes another determiner, typically a, the and those/these:

On Sundays     all            the      family meets for dim sum. 
                     predeterminer  determiner    noun 
                          Pointer                    Thing

Both               the      students arrived late for their first class. 
predeterminer  determiner      noun 
    Pointer                        Thing

The most common predeterminers are all, both, half and multipliers like twice and double. 

Predeterminer + determiner together function as Pointer in the noun group. Predeterminers are used to show that the Thing is countable in some way, eg a family has parents and children as members. 

Note that the terms Pointer and Thing are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: determiner, partitive of-construction, Pointer

Predicator - The Predicator is a function in the clause that is always expressed by the main verb: 

 Bozo    has     read    his new book already.
Subject    Finite    Predicator 

The Predicator may be combined with the Finite:

 Kitty        wrote      a very good story.
Subject   Finite/Predicator  

Whenever the verb group consists only of the main verb, without an auxiliary verb (have, be, do) or modal auxiliary verb (can, may, should etc), the functions of Finite and Predicator are combined. Tense, number and person are then expressed by the main verb, eg wrote rather than write etc. 

Note that the terms Finite, Predicator and Subject are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: Finite, Subject

Pre-Modifier - A Pre-Modifier is any word or group of words that comes before the Head in a noun group. Pre-Modifiers can include articles, adjectives and nouns:

Ricky got   a  new  toy       train      for his birthday. 
                           Pre-Modifier        Head
                                   n o u n   g r o u p

Here the indefinite article a, the adjective huge and the noun television all pre-modify the Head set. Sometimes we focus on the individual items in the Pre-Modifier and give a functional label to each: 

Ricky got   a         new         toy       train      for his birthday. 
                   Pointer   Describer    Classifier     Thing
                                       n o u n   g r o u p

Note that the terms Classifier, Describer, Head, Pointer, Pre-Modifier and Thing are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.

Related terms: adjective, article, Classifier, Describer, Head, noun, noun group, Pointer, Post-Modifier, Thing 

preposition - A preposition is a word such as in or at which comes in front of a noun/noun group to form a prepositional phrase. Prepositions are generally used to indicate position (place and time) and direction. The COBUILD Grammar also defines a preposition as "a word which opens up the possibility of saying more about a thing or an action":

He saw a dog    with    lots of spots. (telling more about a thing)
                           preposition

She stepped   onto    the ferry. (telling more about an action)
                        preposition

Prepositions usually consist of a single word (in, on), but there are some that are more than one word (in front of, in between).

Related term: prepositional phrase

prepositional phrase - A prepositional phrase is a group of words consisting of a preposition and the noun group that follows it. Prepositional phrases express meanings such as time, place and movement:

Dotty starts school at 8.30.

Granny Gong used to live in Sheung Wan.

Inspector Fu went into the shop.  

Related terms: noun group, preposition

present continuous - The present continuous (also called the 'present progressive') is formed with the present form of the auxiliary verb be and the -ing form of the main verb. The present continuous is typically used to refer to actions and events that are in progress:

I am reading a wonderful book at the moment.

It can also be used to refer to the future:

Ricky is coming on 18 August.

Related terms: auxiliary verb, -ing form, past continuous, progressive aspect

present perfect - The present perfect is formed with the auxiliary verb have and the -ed /-en form of the main verb. It typically indicates a particular relationship between one event and a later event, ie a connection between the past and the present:

Someone has broken the window!

In this example, the present perfect is used to indicate that the past action still has current relevance, ie there is broken glass all over the floor which needs to be cleaned up, and the window will have to be replaced.

Less typically, and only in subordinate clauses containing words like when, until and after, the present perfect can refer to future time:

You can go home when you have cleaned up this mess.
                                          subordinate clause

This means 'you must clean up this mess first, and then you can go home'.

Related terms: aspect, auxiliary verb, -ed /-en form, past perfect, progressive aspect, subordinate clause

present simple - The present simple of regular verbs is formed using the base form of the verb, except for the third person singular in which '-s' or '-es' is added. It most often refers to actions or states in the present:

I have a cold.

However, there is no simple one-to-one relationship between tense and time, so the present simple may refer to past and future time as well as to present time:

Obviously she likes attention. [present time]
Man dies in accident. [past time] (typical of newspaper headlines)
The KCR train leaves Kowloon Tong at 09:35. [future time]

Note that the present simple forms of be are irregular and the third person singular of have is has. Modal auxiliary verbs do not change for the third person singular of the present simple tense.

Related terms: base form, modal auxiliary verb, tense

Process - This is a functional term for talking about 'what is going on' in a text. One of the functions of grammar is to represent our experience of the world: the actions and events taking place (Processes), the people and things participating in these actions and events (Participants), and the places, times, reasons, conditions, manners etc of the actions, events, people and things (Circumstances). Processes are expressed by verbs:

   Kitty       wrote    on Tuesday.  
Participant    Process     Circumstance

Here the process is expressed by the 'doing' verb writing. Other processes are 'thinking / feeling / perceiving' (think, like, see), 'saying' (say), 'naming / describing / owing' (is, seem, have) and 'existential' (there is). 

Note that the terms Participant, Process and Circumstance are written with an initial capital letter because they are functional terms.